[the following text has incomplete sections/ which are on order] the logic and debate tradition of india/ tibet/ and mongolia --history/ reader/ resources-- by geshe lobsang tharchin with members of the debate study groupH lisa albatew stewe foster carmen kichikow robert lacey namsa nelson michel roach the logic and debate tradition of india/ tibet/ and mongolia pUBL-iShED BY ThE mAHAYANA sUTRA AND tANTRA pRESS 216a wEST 2ND sTREET fREEWOOD aCRES hOWELL/ nEW jERSEY 07731/ usa rESEARCH FOR A LARGE PORT-iON OF Th-iS SOURCEBOOK WAS CONDUCTED ThROUGH A GRANT FROM ThE yOUThGRANTS -iN ThE hUMAN-iT-iES pROGRAM OF ThE nAT-iONAL eNDOWMENT FOR ThE hUMAN-iT-iES OF ThE gOVERNMENT OF ThE uN-iTED sTATES. tHE CONTENT OF ThE SOURCEBOOK DOES NOT/ HOWEVER/ NECESSAR-iLY REPRESENT ThE V-iEW OF ThE eNDOWMENT. cOPYR-iGHT @1979 BY gEShE lOBSAN tHARCH-iN aLL R-iGHTS RESERVED f-iRST PR-iNT-iNG 1979 sECOND PR-iNT-iNG 1982 tH-iRD PR-iNT-iNG 1985 fOURTh PR-iNT-iNG 1989 isbn 0-918753-00-7 l-iBRARY OF cONGRESS cATALOG cARD nUMBER 70-124172 r862 pR-iNTED AND BOUND -iN ThE uN-iTED sTATES OF aMER-iCA tH-iS WORK -iS DED-iCATED TO h-iS hOL-iNESS tENZ-iN gYATSO--LOG-iC-iAN/ DEBATER/ AND fOURTEENTh dALA-i lAMA--ON ThE OCCAS-iON OF h-iS F-iRST V-iS-iT TO ThE uN-iTED sTATES OF aMER-iCA tABLE OF cONTENTS dED-iCAT-iON ................................................ -i-i-i fOREWORD .................................................. -iX history ................................................... 1 tHE aRT OF lOG-iCH AN eARLY h-iSTORY ........................ 3 mOVE W-iTh ThE kALMUKSH a lATER h-iSTORY ................... 17 reader .................................................... 41 lOG-iCAL rEASON-iNG @ () .................................... 43 t-iBETAN TEXT AND TRANSLAT-iON .............................. 46 i. dEF-iN-iT-iON OF A rEASON ................................ 47 ii. tYPES OF rEASONS ..................................... 49 a. wAL-iD rEASONS ......................................... 49 1. bASES ................................................. 49 2. dEF-iN-iT-iON ............................................ 65 3. tYPES ................................................. 77 tABLE OF cONTENTS (CONT.)H A. rEASONS FOR cAUSE ...................................... 77 B. rEASONS OF iDENT-iTY .................................... 87 C. rEASONS FOR nEGAT-iON ................................... 91 b. iNVAL-iD rEASONS ........................................ 107 nOTES ...................................................... 113 oUTL-iNE .................................................... 119 eNGL-iSh-t-iBETAN gLOSSARY ................................... 125 t-iBETAN-eNGL-iSh gLOSSARY ................................... 133 m-iND @ () .................................................. 143 t-iBETAN TEXT AND TRANSLAT-iON ............................... 144 eXPLANAT-iON OF cONC-iOUSNESS ................................ 145 eXPLANAT-iON OF mENTAL fUNCT-iONS ............................ 163 eNGL-iSh-t-iBETAN gLOSSARY ................................... 181 t-iBETAN-eNGL-iSh gLOSSARY ................................... 185 iND-iRECT pROOFS @ () ....................................... 189 t-iBETAN TEXT AND TRANSLAT-iON ............................... 190 rEFUT-iNG ThE oThER'S pOS-iT-iON .............................. 191 eSTABL-iSh-iNG oUR oWN sYSTEM ................................ 193 d-iSPELL-iNG ANY rEMA-iN-iNG cR-iT-iC-iSM ......................... 215 nOTES ...................................................... 217 oUTL-iNE .................................................... 217 tABLE OF cONTENTS (CONT.)H eNGL-iSh-t-iBETAN gLOSSARY ................................... 221 t-iBETAN-eNGL-iSh gLOSSARY ................................... 225 resources .................................................. 229 sELECTED rEG-iONAL cOLLECT-iONS OF nAT-iVE lOG-iC AND dEBATE mATER-iAL ........................... 231 b-iBL-iOGRAPHY OF t-iTLES -iN sELECTED rEG-iONAL cOLLECT-iONS OF nAT-iVE lOG-iC AND dEBATE mATER-iAL .................................. 237 cATALOGUE OF lOG-iC sELECT-iON TO @tENGYUR ................................................ 240 lOG-iC tREAT-iSES -iN cOLLECTED wORKS OF jE tSONGKHAPA AND tWO mAJOR sTUDENTS ......................................... 253 oThER nAT-iVE wORKS -iN rEG-iONAL cOLLECT-iONS ....................................... 257 iNST-iTUT-iONS oFFER-iNG iNSTRUCT-iON -iN cENTRAL aS-iAN dEBATE .................................... 271 sELECTED iNST-iTUT-iONS W-iTh dEBATE iNSTRUCT-iON ......................................... 271 dEBATE cLASSES W-iTh yOUNG pEOPLE ........................... 272 iNTRODUCT-iON TO cENTRAL aS-iAN dEBAT-iNG............................................... 273 tHREE aRGUMENTS ON cAUSE AND eFFECT ........................................... 277 cLASS ON cOMB-iNAT-iONS ...................................... 280 tABLE OF cONTENTS (CONT.)H iLLUSTRAT-iONSH tRAD-iT-iONAL RENDER-iNG OF d-iGNAGA AND dHARMAK-iRT-i/ TWO LOG-iC-iANS FROM ThE CLASS-iCAL PER-iOD .................................. 9 mAP PRESENT-iNG MOVE OF ThE LOG-iC AND DEBATE TRAD-iT-iON W-iTh ThE kALMUK PEOPLE .............................................. 29 pHOTOGRAPHS ShOW-iNG SCENES FROM ThE kALMUK bUDDH-iST TEMPLES OF fREEWOOD aCRES/ nEW jERSEY ................................. 33 cHART OF ThE S-iXTEEN TYPES OF VAL-iD -iND-iECT PROOFS WH-iCH STR-iKE UP LOG-iCAL STATEMENTS OUTS-iDE ThE-iR OWN CLASS .................................................. 203 cHART OF ThE VAR-iOUS CLASS-iF-iCAT-iONS OF -iND-iRECT PROOFS BY PRESENTAT-iON ......................... 213 pHOTOGRAPHS OF DEBATE -iNSTRUCT-iON .......................... 275 fOREWORD iN jANUARY OF 1977/ ThE rEV. gEShE lOBSANG tHARCH-iN BEGAN TEACH-iNG STUDENTS AT H-iS CENTER -iN fREEWOOD aCRES/ nEW jERSEY/ A TRAD-iT-iONAL PR-iMER -iN ThE FORMAL LOG-iC OF cENTRAL aS-iA. iNSTRUCT-iON WAS G-iVEN -iN eNGL-iSh W-iTh ThE CLASS FOLLOW-iNG ThE t-iBETAN; ThE gEShE HAD COMPLETED ThE BAS-iC TEXT BY SUMER/ ThEN MOV-iNG ON TO A STUDY OF -iND-iRECT PROOFS BEFORE A V-iS-iT ThAT FALL TO MONAST-iC UN-iVERS-iT-iES RESETTLED -iN iND-iA. dUR-iNG ThE -iNTER-iM H-iS STUDENTS MET TO D-iSCUSS ALTERNAT-iVE TERMS FOR ThE FORMAL TRANSLAT-iON OF ThE PR-iMER. gEShE tHARCH-iN STARTED -iNSTRUCT-iON -iN ThE APPL-iCAT-iON OF BAS-iC LOG-iC TO ACTUAL DEBATE ThE NEXT SPR-iNG/ CONT-iNU-iNG -iNTO ThE SUMMER OF 1978. wH-iLE STUDENTS sTEVE fOSTER/ cARMEN k-iCH-iKOV/ AND rOBERT lACEY WORKED ON ThE PREL-iM-iNARY TRANSLAT-iONS/ nAMSA nELSON AND m-iCHAEL rOACH APPL-iED -iN nOVEMBER TO ThE yOUThGRANTS -iN ThE hUMAN-iT-iES PROGRAM OF ThE nAT-iONAL eNDOWMENT FOR ThE hUMAN-iT-iES/ TO GA-iN ASS-iSTANCE FOR A PROJECT ENT-iTLED "cLASS-iCAL aS-iAN dEBATE -iN aMER-iCAH h-iSTORY/ rESOURCES/ AND pROSPECTS." iN mARCH OF 1979 A YOUThGRANT WAS MADE BY ThE eNDOWMENT/ A FEDERAL AGENCY ESTABL-iShED BY cONGRESS "TO PROMOTE RESEARCH/ EDUCAT-iON/ AND PUBL-iC ACT-iV-iTY -iN ThE HUMAN-iT-iES." yOUNGER READRES ShOULD NOTE ThAT YOUThGRANTS ARE ONE OF ThE FEW SOURCES OF SUPPORT FOR NON-PROFESS-iONALS -iNTERESTED -iN CARRY-iNG OUT A PROJECT -iN ThE HUMAN-iT-iES; ThEY ARE AVA-iLABLE ON A COMPET-iT-iVE BAS-iS TO PERSONS UNDER 30 WHO W-iTh ThE A-iD OF QUAL-iF-iED ADV-iSORS SUBM-iT AN APPL-iCAT-iON TO ThE YOUThGRANTS OFF-iCE OF ThE eNDOWMENT (ADDRESS wASh-iNGTON/ d.c. 20506). aGA-iN/ ThE eNDOWMENT'S SUPPORT FOR Th-iS PROJECT ShOULD NOT BE CONSTRUED AS NECESSARY APPROVAL OF ThE CONTENTS OF ThE PRESENT SOURCEBOOK BY ThAT AGENCY. tHE PROJECT WAS CARR-iED OUT -iN ThREE STAGES/ REFLECTED HERE -iN ThE ORGAN-iZAT-iON OF ThE SOURCEBOOK. dUR-iNG A PHASE ON ThE H-iSTORY OF ThE cENTRAL aS-iAN TRAD-iT-iON OF LOG-iC AND DBATE/ STUDENTS BEGAN WORK ON BOTh ThE TRANSLAT-iON OF A CLASS-iCAL H-iSTORY AND AN ESSAY ON ThE TRAD-iT-iON'S MOVE TO ThE uN-iTED sTATES. rESEARCH -iNCLUDED -iNTERV-iEWS W-iTh ThE PEOPLE OF OUR HOME COMMUN-iTY OF fREEWOOD aCRES--ThOSE WHO -iMM-iGRATED FROM ThE kALMUK LAND SOME Th-iRTY YEARS AGO--AND W-iTh t-iBETAN SCOLARS WHO HAVECOME MORE RECENTLY. a PHOTOGRAPH-iC STUDY OF LOCAL TEMPLES COMPLETED ThE H-iSTOR-iCAL SKETCH. a SECOND GOAL OF ThE PROJECT/ ThE COMP-iLAT-iON OF -iNFORMAT-iON ON RESOURCES AVA-iLABLE TO AN aMER-iCAN STUDENT OF Th-iS TRAD-iT-iON OF LOG-iC AND DEBATE/ BEGAN W-iTh A SEARCH FOR NAT-iVE TEXTS W-iTh-iN PR-iVATE COLLECT-iONS AND MAJOR L-iBRAR-iES -iN ThE REG-iON. a L-iST OF ABOUT 125 RELEVANT T-iTLES WAS COMPL-iED/ ALONG W-iTh WHAT WE BEL-iEVE TO BE ThE F-iRST COMPLETE CATALOGUE TO ThE LOG-iC SECT-iON -iN ThE "cHO-NE" ED-iT-iON OF ThE @tENGYUR--A TRAD-iT-iONAL COLLECT-iON OF sANSKR-iT CLASS-iCS -iN t-iBETAN TRANSLAT-iON. cOMPLETED AS WELL DUR-iNG Th-iS PHASE WAS A B-iBL-iOGRAPHY OF rUSS-iAN-LANGUAGE WORKS ON cENRAL aS-iAN LOG-iC/ ThESE DONE FOR ThE MOST PART DUR-iNG A SURGE OF -iNTEREST SOME 60 YEARS AGO -iN sT. pETERSBURG. tHE B-iBL-iOGRAPHY AND A D-iCT-iONARY OF EXAMPLES -iN t-iBETAN FOR ABOUT 400 COMMON LOG-iC AND DEBATE TERMS (ALONG W-iTh PAGE REFERENCES TO NAT-iVE LOG-iC PR-iMERS) WERE CONS-iDERED TOO SPEC-iAL-iZED FOR -iNCLUS-iON HERE ARE AVA-iLABLE TO -iNTERESTED PERSONS ON REQUEST FROM ThE fREEWOOD aCRES/ nEW jERSEY/ CENTER. lASTLY/ ON ThE AVA-iLAB-iL-iTY OF EACH REG-iONAL COLLECT-iON TO AN -iNTERESTED SCHOLAR/ AS WELL AS A REPRESENTAT-iVE L-iST OF -iNST-iTUT-iONS OFFER-iNG DEBATE -iNSTRUCT-iON/ WERE COMP-iLED. tHE F-iNAL STAGE OF ThE PROJECT EXAM-iNED ThE FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR ThE DEBAT-iNG TRAD-iT-iON -iN aMER-iCA. hER TRANSLAT-iONS FOR VAR-iOUS SECT-iONS OF ThE LOG-iC PR-iMERS WERE COMPLETED/ AND F-iN-iShED MANUSCR-iPTA PREPARED. m-iCHAEL AND nAMSA ThEN CONDUCTED SPEC-iAL CLASSES -iN DEBATE AND LOG-iC FOR YOUNGER PEOPLE/ DUR-iNG jULY AND aUGUST OF 1979. tHE CONCEPT OF ThE SOURCEBOOK HAS BEEN TO PROV-iDE -iNFORMAT-iON USEFUL FOR READERS OF VARY-iNG -iNTERESTS. gENERAL READERS WHO W-iSh TO KNOW MORE ABOUT cENTRAL aS-iAN LOG-iC/ kALMUK H-iSTORY/ AND BAS-iC DEBATE MAY REFER TO ThE H-iSTORY SECT-iON AND F-iNAL RESOURCES ART-iCLES. sTUDENTS OF PH-iLOSOPHY AND t-iBETAN LANGUAGE ARE D-iRECTED TO ThE TRANSLAT-iON -iN ThE READER/ W-iTh ThE-iR FAC-iNG t-iBETAN AND GLOSSAR-iES BOTh eNGL-iSh-t-iBETAN AND t-iBETAN-eNGL-iSh. sTUDENTS W-iTh A PREV-iOUS BACKGROUND -iN t-iBETAN LANGUAGE AND cENTRAL aS-iAN LOG-iC W-iLL PERHAPS F-iND ThE CATALOGUES OF LOG-iC WORKS BENEF-iC-iAL/ AS MAY L-iBRARY B-iBL-iOGRAPHERS WHOSE -iNST-iTUT-iONS HOUSE COLLECT-iONS OF E-iThER ThE @tENGYUR OR sPEC-iAL fORE-iGN cURRENCY pROGRAM (pl 480) MATER-iALS. tHE DESCR-iPT-iONS OF REG-iONAL L-iBRAR-iES AND -iNST-iTUT-iONS W-iTh DEBATE -iNSTRUCT-iON ShOULD A-iD ThOSE WHO WOULD L-iKE FURThER EXPOSURE TO ThE LOG-iC TEXTBOOKS AND ACTUAL DEBATE. hERE WE WOULD L-iKE TO EXPRESS OUR ThANKS TO ThE FOLOW-iNG PERSONS FOR HELP NOT MENT-iONED -iN ThE SOURCEBOOK -iTSELFH dR. s.d. aTK-iNS (PROFESSOR OF sANSKR-iT [RET-iRED]/ dEPT. OF cLASS-iCS/ pR-iNCETON uN-iVERS-iTY)H PROJECT EVALUATOR/ REV-iEWED L-iST-iNG OF sANSKR-iT T-iTLES -iN @tENGYUR CATALOGUE AND PROV-iDED EVALUAT-iON FOR eNDOWMENT mS. ARY jO bLA-iN (oFF-iCE OF yOUTh pROGRAMS/ neh)H RENDERED HELPFUL ADV-iCE ThROUGHOUT ThE PROJECT AND HELPED ADM-iN-iSTER GRANT dR. r-iCHARD bURG-i (PROFESSOR/ dEPT. OF sLAV-iC LANGUAGES/ pR-iNCETON uN-iV.)H PROJECT EVALUATOR/ REV-iEWED TRANSCR-iPT-iON FOR B-iBL-iOGRAPHY OF rUSS-iAN-LANGUAGE WORKS AND PROV-iDED EVALUAT-iON FOR eNDOWMENT dR. w-iLL-iAM lAfLEUR (ASST. PROFESSOR SPEC-iAL-iZ-iNG -iN aS-iA/ dEPT. OF rEL-iG-iON/ pR-iNCETON uN-iV.)H PROJECT ADV-iSOR AND EVALUATOR/ ARRANGED ACCESS TO L-iBRARY MATER-iALS/ REV-iEWED AND SUGGESTED CORRECT-iONS FOR TRANSLAT-iON WORK/ SUBM-iTTED EVALUAT-iON FOR eNDOWMENT mR. gLEN mARCUS (oFF-iCE OF yOUTh pROGRAMS/ neh)H HELPED ADM-iN-iSTER YOUThGRANT mR. r-iShARD tHOMPSON (LANGUAGE ARTS SPEC-iAL-iST; PR-iNC-iPAL/ lAND o' p-iNES sCHOOL/ hOWELL/ n.j.)H PROJECT ADV-iSOR AND EVALUATOR; ADV-iSED ON ThE H-iSTORY PHASE AND W-iTh CLASSES FOR YOUNG PEOPLE/ REV-iEWED MATER-iALS AND SUBM-iTTED EVALUAT-iON FOR eNDOWMENT lASTLY/ WE'D L-iKE TO ACKNOWLEDGE A NUMBER OF SERV-iCES NOT DESCR-iBED ELSEWHERE. pROOFREAD-iNGH sTEVE fOSTER/ sANDRA gREEN/ cARMEN k-iCH-iKOV/ mRS. eD-iTh rOACH/ m-iCHAEL rOACH pHOTOGRAPHSH nAMSA nELSON/ mRS. e. rOACH eD-iT-iNG/ TYP-iNGH m. rOACH nOTE F-iNALLY ThAT/ WHERE TRANSCR-iPT-iON -iNTO rOMAN LETTERS APPEARS/ ThE RESPECT-iVE SYSTEMS USED FOR ThE sANSKR-iT AND t-iBETAN ARE--W-iTh M-iNOR MOD-iF-iCAT-iON--ThOSE OF mON-iER-w-iLL-iAMS AND ThE l-iBRARY OF t-iBETAN wORKS AND aRCH-iVES. wAR-iANT SPELL-iNGS OF WORDS TO T-iTLES -iN ThE B-iBL-iOGRAPHY SECT-iON ARE GENERALLY RETA-iNED WHERE ThEY ARE PR-iNTED ThUS -iN ThE OR-iG-iNAL WORKS AND l-iBRARY OF cONGRESS ACCESS-iONS L-iST-iNGS. aUGUST/ 1979 tHE dEBATE sTUDY gROUP C(O rASh-i gEMP-iL l-iNG tHE f-iRST kALMUK bUDDH-iST tEMPLE -iN aMER-iCA fREEWOOD aCRES hOWELL/ nEW jERSEY u.s.a. history the art of logic hERE BEG-iN A PA-iR OF ESSAYS ON ThE H-iSTORY OF ThE LOG-iC AND DEBATE TRAD-iT-iON/ REPRECENT-iNG F-iRST ThE eASTERN/ AND ThEN ThE wESTERN/ APPROACHES. tH-iS F-iRST/ ADAPTED BY gEShE tHARCH-iN@# FROM NAT-iVE SOURCES/ ThUS D-iSPLAYS ThE cENTRAL aS-iAN EMPHAS-iS ON ULT-iMATE APPL-iCAT-iONS AND ThE TEACH-iNG GENEALOG-iES. iT FURThER ADDRESSES -iTSELF PR-iNC-iPALLY TO ThE CLASS-iCAL PER-iOD OF ThE TRAD-iT-iON. gEShE lOBSANG tHARCH-iN WAS BORN -iN lHASA/ t-iBET/ -iN 1921. eNTER-iNG ThE gYALRONG cOLLEGE OF ThE C-iTY'S sERA mONAST-iC uN-iVERS-iTY AT AGE E-iGHT/ HE F-iRST STUD-iED READ-iNG/ WR-iT-iNG/ AND GRAMMAR--ThEN BEG-iNN-iNG ThE TWO-YEAR COURSE -iN BAS-iC LOG-iC AND DEBATEH ThE F-iELD OF @PRAMANA. tH-iS WAS FOLLOWED BY E-iGHT YEARS -iN A PROGRAM ON @PRAJNYA PARAM-iTA/ WH-iCH MAY BE CALLED GENERAL bUDDH-iST PH-iLOSOPHY FOR STUDENTS OF A GREAT CAPAC-iTY. dUR-iNG ThE NEXT FOUR YEARS ThE gEShE COMPLETED ThE COURSE -iN @MADHYAM-iKA/ A SPEC-iAL-iZED STUDY OF ThE TRUE NATURE OF EX-iSTENCE/ AND CONT-iNUED ON TO FOUR MORE YEARS -iN ThE F-iELD OF ETh-iCSH @V-iNAYA. aN EQUAL NUMBER OF YEARS WERE DEVOTED TO @ABH-iDHARMA/ GENERAL PH-iLOSOPHY FROM A V-iEWPO-iNT OF LESSER CAPAC-iT-iES/ AND WERE FOLLOWED BY PREPARAT-iONS FOR ThE R-iG-iD F-iNAL EXAM-iNAT-iONS TOWARDS ThE DGREE OF gEShE--dOCTOR OF pH-iLOSOPHY. aFTER EXCELL-iNG -iN A W-iDE VAR-iETY OF TESTS/ -iNCLUD-iNG OPEN DEBATES SPONSORED BY ThE GOVERNMENT AND JUDGED BY AN ASSEMBLY OF t-iBET'S LEAD-iNG SCHOLARS/ rEV. tHARCH-iN -iN 1954 RECE-iVED ThE @GEShE DEGREE W-iTh H-iGHEST HONORS (@HLARAMPA). hE -iS ONE OF ThE FEW REMA-iN-iNG SCHOLARS TO HAVE REACHED Th-iS LEVEL BEFORE ThE LOSS OF t-iBET. pR-iOR TO H-iS ESCAPE FROM ThE -iNVAS-iON BY ThE cOMMUN-iST cH-iNESE/ gEShE tHARCH-iN ALSO COMPLETED ThE ENT-iRE PROGRAM -iN @TANTR-iC (ESOTER-iC) STUD-iES AT ThE gYUMEY tANTR-iC uN-iVERS-iTY -iN lHASA/ ThEN ENTER-iNG ThE ADM-iN-iSTRAT-iON ThERE. dUR-iNG TWELVE YEARS -iN iND-iA/ ThE gEShE SERVED AS TEACHER AND PR-iNC-iPAL -iN ThE t-iBETAN PR-iMARY AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS/ CONTR-iBUT-iNG TOO AS A MEMBER OF ThE GOVERNMENT TEXTBOOK NUMEROUS ESSAYS ON LOG-iC/ PH-iLOSOPHY/ H-iSTORY/ GRAMMAR/ AND OThER SUBJECTS. tHE STORY OF HOW gEShE tHARCH-iN REACHED aMER-iCA AND BEGAN H-iS TEACH-iNG CAREER HERE ARE SUMMAR-iZED -iN ThE -iNTRODUCT-iON TO H-iS LATEST WORK/ ThE TRANSLAT-iON @nAGARJUNA'S lETTER (dHARAMSALAH l-iBRARY OF t-iBETAN wORKS AND aRCH-iVES/ NEW ED. -iN PRESS). hE SERVES AT PRESENT AS PAR-iSh PR-iEST OF rASh-i gEMP-iL l-iNG/ ThE f-iRST kALMUK bUDDH-iST tEMPLE OF hOWELL/ nEW jERSEY/ AND OFFERS -iNSTRUCT-iON ThERE -iN LANGUAGE AND ThE VAR-iOUS SUBJECTS MENT-iONED ABOVE. aSS-iST-iNG gEShE tHARCH-iN -iN ThE FOLLOW-iNG TRANSLAT-iON WAS H-iS STUDENT/ m-iCHAEL rOACH. m-iCHAEL/ 26/ GREW UP -iN ThE sOUThWEST AND WAS ONE OF ThE PRES-iDENT-iAL SCHOLARS FOR 1970. hE HAS BEEN UNDER ThE gEShE'S TUTELAGE FOR FOUR YEARS S-iNCE COMPLET-iNG STUD-iES AT pR-iNCETON uN-iVERS-iTY AND/ UNDER FELLOWSh-iPS FROM pR-iNCETON AND ThE wOODROW w-iLSON sCHOOL OF iNTERNAT-iONAL aFFA-iRS/ AT ThE l-iBRARY OF t-iBETAN wORKS AND aRCH-iVES. m-iCHAEL ALSO HELPED W-iTh ThE READER SECT-iON AND CONTR-iBUTED ThE RESOURCES DATA. tHE aRT OF lOG-iC aN eARLY h-iSTORY a GREAT NUMBER OF WORKS BY NON-bUDDH-iST TEACHERS/ SUCH AS AN EXPOS-iT-iON ON REASON-iNG BY ThE ADEPT l-iNGKYE AND ThE bRAHM-iN aKShAPADA'S PRESENTAT-iON OF ThE E-iGHT MAJOR PO-iNTS -iN LOG-iC/ PREDATE ThE bUDDH-iST CLASS-iCS ON ThE ART OF LOG-iC.@(1) aLL OF ThE FORMER WORKS ARE/ HOWEVER/ MERE D-iSPUTAT-iON/ AND FALL ShORT OF BE-iNG MEAN-iNGFUL METhODS OF REASON-iNG. a GENU-iNE SC-iENCE OF LOG-iC REVEALS ThAT SUPER-iOR PATh WH-iCH LEADS TO DEF-iN-iTE GOOD AND LAST-iNG HAPP-iNESSH -iT DEL-iNEATES/ -iN A LOG-iCAL WAY/ ThE WORK-iNGS TO ThE FOUR BAS-iC FACTS OF EX-iSTENCE--SUFFER-iNG/ -iTS CAUSE/ -iTS STOP/ AND ThE WAY -iT -iS STOPPED. iN REGARD TO Th-iS PATh/ OUR OWN TEACHER HAS---iN A SCR-iPTURE CALLED @tHE d-iSCLOSED mEAN-iNG--MADE MENT-iON ThAT tHE REASONS ARE FOURH FOR ULT-iMATE NATURE AND dEPENDENCE/ PROCESS/ AND PROOF OF VAL-iD-iTY. hE MOREOVER STSTES ThE FOLLOW-iNGH ...tHEREFORE/ REASONS FOR PROV-iNG VAL-iD-iTY ARE ESTABL-iShED AS BE-iNG ABSOLUTELY CORRECT--ENDOWED W-iTh F-iVE QUAL-iT-iES--ThROUGH VAL-iD PERCEPT-iONaH ThOSE D-iRECT/ DEDUCT-iVE/ AND BASED ON REL-iABLE AUThOR-iTY.@(2) tHUS DOES ThE bUDDHA ELUC-iDATE ThE BAS-iC NATURE TO ThE FOUR K-iNDS OF REASONS/ AS WELL AS ThE D-iRECT AND OThER TYPES OF VAL-iD PERCEPT-iONS. iN ShORT/ WE MAY MOREOVER UNDERSTAND--FROM h-iS EXPRESS PRESENTAT-iONS ON REASONS--ThE FACT ThAT A VAL-iD/ DEDUCT-iVE PERCEPAT-iON OF AN ABSTRUSE OBJECT CAN BE GENERATED BY MEANS OF ThE RESULT/ -iDENT-iTY/ AND NEGAT-iNG TYPES OF REASONS.@(3) nOW W-iTh REGARD TO OUR SYSTEM OF TEACH-iNGS/ ThE F-iRST OF ThE CLASS-iCAL WORKS ON LOG-iC WAS ThE @iNST-iTUT-iON OF dEBATE. sUBSEQUENT TO Th-iS/ A LARGE SCATTER-iNG OF LOG-iC TEXTBOOKS--@aN eXAM-iNAT-iON OF lOG-iC AND OThERS--WAS COMPOSED BY ThAT GREAT MASTER AND AUThOR OF LOG-iC CLASS-iCS/ d-iGNAGA. rEAL-iZ-iNG ThAT NO S-iNGLE MEBER OF ThE EX-iST-iNG BODY OF TREAT-iSES WAS TOTALLY COMPREHENS-iVE/ d-iGNAGA CONDENSED ThEM ALL -iNTO A WORK -iNCORPORAT-iG S-iX CHAPTERS AND ENT-iTLED @aN aNThOLOGY OF ThE lOG-iC sCR-iPTURES. aN AUTOCOMMENTARY WAS ALSO WR-iTTEN TO ThE TEXT/ AND EXPL-iCAT-iONS MADE BY mASTER iShVARASENA AND OThERS. tHAT VER-iTABLE sUN AMONG TEACHERS/ dHARMAK-iRT-i/ OPENED ThE GREAT REASON-iNG TRAD-iT-iON W-iTh H-iS COLLECT-iON KNOWN AS ThE "sEVEN lOG-iC wORKS/" WR-iTTEN -iN COMMENTARY TO d-iGNAGA'S @aNThOLOGY. thREE TREAT-iSES--ThE EXTREMELY EXTENS-iVE TEXTBOOK @cOMMENTARY ON ThE lOG-iC/ ThE ONLY SL-iGHTLY CONDENSED @aSCERTA-iNMENT OF lOG-iC/ AND ThE VERY CONDENSED @a dROP OF rEASON-iNG--SERVE AS A SORT OF MA-iN BODY TO ThE COLLECT-iON. aNC-iLLARY TO -iT ARE ThE REMA-iN-iNG FOURH @aN eXAM-iNAT-iON OF rELAT-iONSh-iPS/ @a dROP OF rEASONS/ @rEASONS -iN d-iSPUTAT-iON/ AND @tHE pROOF OF oThER cONT-iNUA. tHESE WORKS SPREAD ThE-iR AUThOR'S FAME W-iTh ThE GREAT ROAR OF A CONQUER-iNG L-iON. dHARMAK-iRT-i'S PR-iNC-iPAL STUDENT/ dEVENDRABUDDH-i/ COMPOSED AN EXPL-iCAT-iON TO ThE @cOMMENTARY/ TAK-iNG UP WHERE H-iS TEACHER HAD LEFT OFF -iN AN AUTOCOMMENTARY. tHE EXPL-iCAT-iON -iTSELF WAS ThEN COMMENTED UPON BY sHAKYABUDDH-i. mASTER w-iN-iTADEVA COMPOSED EXPLANAT-iONS TO ALL SEVEN WORKS -iN ThE COLLECT-iON/ WH-iLE BOTh "mENTOR jEWEL" (pRAJNYAKARA gUPTA) AND "tHE bRAHM-iN" (sHANKARANANDA) PREPARED EXPL-iCAT-iONS TOT ThE @cOMMENTARY. bEYOND ThESE/ mASTER dHARMOTTARA COMPLETED NUMEROUS CLASS-iCS/ BOTh BR-iEF AND EXTENS-iVEH ThEY -iNCLUDE SUCH WORKS AS ThE GREATER @cORRECT cOMMENTARY TO ThE aSCERTA-iNMENT OF lOG-iC AND @cOMMENTARY TO ThE dROP OF rEASON-iNG/ AN a-iD TO sTUDENTS. tHE TWO--"jEWEL" AND dHARMOTTARA--WERE RENOWNED AS BE-iNG MOST EXTREMELY SK-iLLED -iN LOG-iC. sT-iLL FURThER ARE ThE @cOMPEND-iUM ON uLT-iMATE rEAL-iTY BY sHANTARAKSh-iTA/ A VAST COMMENTARY TO ThE SAME BY kAMALASh-iLA/ AND ALL ThE RESTH A CLUSTER OF CLASS-iC WORKS BOTh BR-iEF AND EXTENS-iVE. mOREOVER/ ThOSE LOG-iC TEXTBOOKS -iNTO t-iBETAN ACCOUNT FOR JUST ABOUT 21 OF ThE GREAT VOLUMES -iN ThE nARTANG ED-iT-iON OF ThE TEXTBOOK PORT-iON TO ThE bUDDH-iST CANON. nOW DUR-iNG ThE EARL-iER SPREAD OF ThE bUDDHA'S TEACH-iNGS -iN t-iBET/ A NUMBER OF WORKS FROM ThE END OF ThE COLLECT-iON OF SEVEN WERE TRANSLATED BY A kAWA pELTSEK AND dRENPA nAMKA. tHE LATER SPREAD-iNG SAW TRANSLAT-iONS OF @aN aNThOLOGY OF ThE lOG-iC sCR-iPTURES/ AS WELL AS OThER TEXTS/ BY sHAMA sENG-GYAM---iN ADD-iT-iON TO A RENDER-iNG OF ThE ROOT TEXT TO dHARMAK-iRT-i'S @cOMMENTARY BY ONE mA gEWAY lODRU. sUBSEQUENTLY ThERE SPREAD/ TO SOME EXTENT/ A SCHOOL OF LOG-iC BASED ON ThESE TEXTS. sT-iLL LATER ThE GGREAT TRANSLATOR FROM nGOK/ lONDEN sHERAB/ REV-iSED ThESE EARL-iER ATTEMPTS AND COMPLETED ThE TRANSLAT-iON OF @aSCERTA-iNMENT OF lOG-iC/ a dROP OF rEASON-iNG/ AND ThE REST. tHE PREDOM-iNANT STRA-iN -iN ThE TEACH-iNG TRAD-iT-iON WAS ThAT FOUND -iN ThE WORKS BY "jEWEL" AND dHARMOTTARA. tHAT GREAT UPHOLDER OF ThE TRAD-iT-iON/ cHOKY-i sENG-GE OF cHAPA/ NEXT -iNTRODUCED ThE @DURA GENRE OF LOG-iC PR-iMER BY COMPOS-iNG SUCH WORKS AS @d-iSPELL-iNG mENTAL dARKNESS/ A COMPEND-iUM OF ThE LOG-iC CLASS-iCS.@(4) a LONG AND GLOR-iOUS TRAD-iT-iON FLOUR-iShED/ PASS-iNG DOWN ThROUGH A NUMBER OF SCHOLARS--E-iGHT OF ThE GREATEST EACH NAMED @sENG-GE ("L-iON"). sO TOO D-iD ThE -iLLUSTR-iOUS kAShM-iR-i PUND-iT sHAKYAShR-i AND ThAT GREAT MASTER OF ACTUAL MEAN-iNGS/ kUNGA gYALTSEN (ThE "sAKYA pAND-iTA/" RENOWNED ThROUGHOUT ALL OF iND-iA AND t-iBET)/ UNDERTAKE TO TRANSLATE dHARMAK-iRT-i'S @cOMMENTARY/ SETT-iNG ThE t-iBETAN DOWN -iN -iTS F-iNAL FORM. tHE LATTER/ MOREOVER/ COMPOSED A ROOT TEXT--AND COMPAN-iON COMMENTARY---iMPART-iNG ThE VERY ESSENCE OF dHARMAK-iRT-i'S ENT-iRE GROUP OF SEVEN/ALONG W-iTh ThE OR-iG-iNAL SCR-iPTURE BY d-iGNAGA. w-iTh Th-iS TEACHER AND H-iS COUNTLESS STUDENTS -iN iND-iA AND t-iBET BEGAN AND FLOUR-iShED A TEACH-iNG L-iNEAGE SUCH ThAT--ThOUGH ThE mASTER tRANSLATORS WERE MANY--ThE nGOK AND sAKYA TRAD-iT-iONS GREW MOST CELEBRATED. aS HOLDERS OF ThE TRAD-iT-iON OF ThE sAKYA pAND-iTA CAME H-iS D-iSC-iPLES/ TRUE L-iONS ALL AMONG SCHOLARS/ -iN ThE FOLLOW-iNG ORDERH r-iKPE sENG-GE OF uYUK/ kUNGA pEL OF nYAWON/ m-iPAM OF yAK AND ThE rONG TEACHER sHEJA kUNS-iK/ ALONG W-iTh ThE GORAMPA sONAM sENG-GE AND sHAKYA cHOKDEN. bEYOND ThESE WERE wENERABLE rENDAWA (sHONNY lODRU) AND ThE GREAT lORD tSONGKHAPA. tH-iS LATTER/ ThE H-iGHEST OF SAV-iORS/ APPL-iED ThE ThREE TESTS OF ACCURACY@(5) TO EACH OF ThE iND-iAN AND t-iBETAN CLASS-iCS ON LOG-iC--ThEREBY EL-iM-iNAT-iNG ANY UNDUE ASS-iGNMENTS OF VALUE. hAV-iNG GA-iNED A TOTAL KNOWLEDGE OFThE -iDEAS HELD BY ThE TWO ABSOLUTE LORDS OF LOG-iC/ HE EXPOUNDED UPON d-iGNAGA'S OR-iG-iNAL SCR-iPTURE AND ThE COLLECT-iON OF SEVEN TREAT-iSES BY dHARMAK-iRT-i/ EMBRAC-iNG ThE AFF-iL-iATE WORKS AS WELL. tH-iS lORD tSONGKAPA D-iD -iN NO TR-iFL-iNG PRESENTAT-iON OFThE MERE L-iTERAL MEAN-iNGS OF TERMS; RAThER/ HE SET FORTh A SURPASS-iNG -iNSTRUCT-iON UT-iL-iZ-iNG ThE METhODS OF LOG-iC FOR A LUC-iD PRESENTAT-iON OF ThE ENT-iRE SER-iES OF STEPS TO BE TAKEN TOWARDS ULT-iMATE ENDS BY ThOSE OF BOTh GREATER AND LESSER CAPAC-iT-iES. tHERE-iN HE HAS CREATED A LOG-iCAL METhOD FAR EXCELL-iNG ThE OThERS--A SWEEP-iNG L-iON'S ROAR. -iN SUCCESS-iON ThEN CAME A GREAT NUMBER OF ABSOLUTE LORDS OF REASON-iNG--MASTER SCHOLARS SUCH AS dARMA r-iNCHEN AND kEDRUP gELEKPEL/ LEAD-iNG PR-iNCES TO ThE lORD tSONGKHAPA. a MASS OF COGENT TEXTBOOKS WAS PRODUCED/ AND -iND-iV-iDUALS WHO HAD BECOME VERSED -iN LOG-iC ThROUGH LEARN-iNG AD REFLECT-iON CROWDED ThE LANDS OF iND-iA AND t-iBET L-iKE ThE ATOMS OF Th-iS GREAT EARTh. wE MAY F-iNALLY MENR-iON bUTON r-iNPOCHE'S @iLLUM-iNAT-iON OF ThE mEAN-iNGS TO lOG-iC/ AS WELL AS ThE @oCEAN lOG-iC cLASS-iC--WH-iCH ThE kARMAPA cHODRAK gYATSO -iMPARTED SPONTANEOUSLY BY WAY OF RECALL-iNG ThAT PAST T-iME WHENaHE HAD DE-iGNED TOTAKE B-iRTh AS dHARMAK-iRT-i. aND HERE LASTLY WE L-iST ThE bHUTANESE PUND-iT pADMA kARPO/ WHO COMPOSED ThE LOG-iC TEXTBOOK @oRNAMENT OF mANJUGOShA'S cONCEPTS--W-iTh AN ACCOMPANY-iNG GENERAL COMMENTARY. tHE WORKSOF ThESE AND CERTA-iN OThER AUThORS EXH-iB-iT FOR ThE MOST PART A CONS-iSTENCY W-iTh ThE nGOK SYSTEM OF EXPL-iCAT-iON. wORKS -iN GREATER CONSONANCE W-iTh ThE sAKYA METhOD ARE ThOSE TREAT-iSES SUCH AS @tHE gREAT eLUC-iDAT-iON OF cOMMENTARY ON ThE lOG-iC--COMPOSED SUBSEQUENT TO ThE FLOWER-iNG OF ThE nGOK TRAD-iT-iON BY ThE CONQUER-iNG m-iPAM gELEKH ThAT GREATEST OF H-iGHER BE-iNGS/ ACTUAL EMBOD-iMENT OF ThE bUDDHAS' W-iSDOM/ AND TRUE sUN AMONG TEACHERS. tH-iS sAKYA SYSTEM EVENTUALLY SPREAD TO ThE nY-iNGMA GROUP AS WELL. tHE DOORS OF REASON-iNG WERE OPENED EVER W-iDER/ BY VAR-iOUS -iND-iV-iDUALS/ W-iTh ThE-iR LOG-iC TEXTBOOKS AND DEEP POWERS OF UNDERSTAND-iNG. tHE-iR FOLLOWERS TOO HAVE FLOUR-iShED/ -iN UNBROKEN L-iNE. tHE aRT OF lOG-iC nOTES 1. pREC-iSE TRANSCR-iPT-iONS FOR NAMES OF PERSONS/ WORKS/ AND PLACES ARE FOUND -iN AN APPENDED L-iST. r-iPRESENTAT-iVE DATES/ ACCORD-iNG FOT ThE MOST PART TO k. pOTTER AND e. gENE sM-iTh/ ARE SUPPL-iED ThERE AS WELL. 2. @"pHAGS-PA DGONGS-PA NGES-PAR 'GREL-PA ThEG-PA CHEN-PO-I MDO (aRYA-SANDH-iN-iRMOCANANAMA-MAHAYANASUTRA)/ PP.1A-87B FROM wOL. @cA OF @MdO-MANG SECT-iON TO @BkA'-'GYUR (lHASA ED-iT-iON)/ P. 82A (D-iSCUSS-iON PP. 80B-83A). 3. rEFER TO ThE ESSAY "lOG-iCAL rEASON-iNG" -iN Th-iS SOURCEBOOK. 4. tHE TRANSLAT-iONS FOLLOW-iNG HERE -iN ThE SOURCEBOOK ARE ADAPTED FROM JUST SUCH PR-iMERS. 5. cHECKS BY ThOSE VAL-iD PERCEPT-iONS WH-iCH ARE D-iRECT/ DEDUCT-iVE/ OR BASED ON REL-iABLE AUThOR-iTY. tHE aRT OF lOG-iC pREC-iSE tRANSCR-iPT-iONS @@@@[lEFT OUT PP. 14-16H ALL sANSKR-iT AND t-iBETAN TRANSL-iT.]@@@@ mowe with the kalmuks tH-iS ESSAY DESCR-iBES/ -iN oCC-iDENTAL FASh-iON/ ThE PHYS-iCAL MOVE OF ThE cENTRAL aS-iAN TRAD-iT-iON TO aMER-iCA BY TRAC-iNG -iTS M-iGRAT-iONS W-iTh ThE kALMUK PEOPLE--FOUNDERS OF ThE F-iRST TRUE -iNST-iTUT-iONS FOR Th-iS TYPE OF STUDY -iN aMER-iCA. nAMSA mELSON/ CO-D-iRECTOR OF ThE neh PROJECT/ DAUGHTER AND GRANDDAUGHTER OF OR-iG-iNAL kALMUK SETTLERS -iN fREEWOOD aCRES/ HAS CONTR-iBUTED Th-iS WORK. nAMSA/ 14/ WAS BORN -iN bROOKLYN AND GREW UP HERE -iN nEW jERSEY. iN SCHOOL ShE HAS ACH-iEVED HONOR ROLL AND H-iGH HONOR ROLL FOR S-iX YEARS/ SERV-iNG AS WELL -iN STUDENT GOVERNMENT AND DRAMA PRODUCCT-iONS. w-iTh-iN ThE COMMUN-iTY/ ShE HAS PART-iC-iPATED -iN kALMUK LANGUAGE CLASSES AND ThE kALMUK mONGLO-iAN FOLK-DANCE TROUPE. f-iNALLY/ nAMSA COMPLETED DUR-iNG ThE SUMMER OF 1979 A STUDY OF ThE TRAD-iT-iONAL PR-iMER -iN FORMAL LOG-iC/ COMPOS-iNG SUMMAR-iES FOR USE -iN ThE CLASSES W-iTh YOUNGER PEOPLE HELD UNDER ThE GRANT PROV-iS-iONS. tHE MAP ACCOMPANY-iNG ThE ESSAY WAS PREPARED BY ANOThER kALMUK YOUTh/ l-iSA aLBATEW/ WHOSE BACKGROUND -iS DESCR-iBED W-iTh HER CONTR-iBUT-iON TO ThE SOURCEBOOK'S RESOURCES SECT-iON. tHE mOVE W-iTh ThE kALMUKSH a lATER h-iSTORY tO SEE HOW ThE cENTRAL aS-iAN TRAD-iT-iON OF LOG-iC AND DEBATE REACHED aMER-iCA/ WE HAVE TO START ABOUT 750 YEARS AGO/ -iN mONGOL-iA. hOW mONGOLS BECAME bUDDH-iSTS tHE gENGH-iS kHAN-iTES gENGH-iS kHAN -iS FAMOUS FOR ThE BATTLE TACT-iCS HE USED TO FORM ThE ONCE VERY POWERFUL mONGOL-iAN eMP-iRE. wHEN ThE kHAN ATTACKED ThE K-iNGDOM OF hS-i-hS-iA -iN 1205 AND COMPLETED H-iS CONQUEST OF -iT -iN 1209/ HE BROUGHT mONGOLS TO ThE-iR F-iRST TASTE OF bUDDH-iSM/ FOR ThE PEOPLE OF hS-i-hS-iA WERE t-iBETANS WHO FOLLOWED ThE bUDDH-iST REL-iG-iON. gENGH-iS kHAN CREATED A UN-iTY AMONG H-iS FOLLOWERS AND SAW TO -iT ThET ThE PEOPLE OF hS-i-hS-iA WERE PART OFH-iS UN-iON BEFORE GO-iNG ON TO SUBJUGATE nORThERN cH-iNA. aT ONE PO-iNT -iN T-iME gENGH-iS kHAN'S TROOPS WERE HEAD-iNG TOWARD t-iBET PROPER. tHE t-iBETANS/ KNOWLEDGEABLE OF ThE kHAN'S STRENGTh/ SENT MESSENGERS TO MEET ThE ARMY. wHEN ThEY D-iD/ AN AGREEMENT WAS MADE TO PAY A TR-iBUTE TO ThE kHAN ANNUALY/ -iF HE AGREED NOT TO ATTACK t-iBET. wHEN gENGH-iS kHAN D-iED -iN 1227 ThE t-iBETANS STOPPED PAY-iNG ThE ANNUAL TR-iBUTE. iN 1240 pR-iNCE gODAN/ WHO WAS gENGH-iS kHAN'S GRANDSON AND ThE SECOND SON OF oGODA-i/ ATTACKED t-iBET TO RECOVER ThE TR-iBUTE. aFTER A DEFEAT OF DEAThS/ DESTRUCT-iON/ AND D-iSORDER FOR t-iBET/ pR-iNCE gODAN -iN 1244 SENT A MESSAGE TO ThE sAKYA pAND-iTA/ ThE W-iSEST MAN KNOWN -iN t-iBET. tHE LETTER STATEDH i/ ThE MOST POWEFUL AND PROSPEROUS pR-iNCE gODAN/ W-iSh TO -iNFORM ThE sAKYA pAND-iTA/ kUNGA gYALTSEN/ ThAT WE NEED A LAMA TO ADV-iSE MY -iGNORANT PEOPLE ON HOW TO CONDUCT ThEMSELVES MORALLY AND SP-iR-iTUALLY. ...i HAVE BEEN PONDER-iNG Th-iS PROBLEM FOR SOME T-iME/ AND AFTER MUCH CONS-iDERAT-iON/ HAVE DEC-iDED ThAT YOU ARE ThE ONLY PERSON SU-iTABLE FOR ThE TASK. aS YOU ARE ThE ONLY LAMA i HAVE CHOSEN/ i W-iLL NOT ACCRPT ANY EXCUSE ON ACCOUNT OF YOUR AGE OR ThE R-iGORS OF ThE JOURNEY. tHE lORD bUDDHA GAVE H-iS L-iFE FOR ALL BE-iNGS. wOULD YOU NOT/ ThEREFORE/ BE DENY-iNG YOUR FA-iTh -iF YOU TR-iED TO AVO-iD Th-iS DUTY OF YOURS? iT WOULD/ OF COURSE/ BE EASY FOR ME TO SEND A LARGE BODY OF TROOPS TO BR-iNG YOU HERE; BUT -iN SO DO-iNG/ HARM AND UNaHAPP-iNESS M-iGHT BE BROUGHT TO MANY -iNNOCENT L-iV-iNG BE-iNGS. iN ThE -iNTEREST OF ThE bUDDH-iST FA-iTh AND ThE WELFARE OF ALL L-iV-iNG CREATURES/ i SUGGEST ThAT YOU COME TO US -iMMED-iATELY. aS A FAVOR TO YOU/ i ShALL BE VERY K-iND TO ThOSE MONKS WHO ARE NOW L-iV-iNG ON ThE WEST S-iDE OF ThE SUN.(1) tHE sAKYA pAND-iTA GRAC-iOUSLY ACCEPTED pR-iNCE gODAN'S -iNV-iTAT-iON. hE LEFT -iN 1244 TOWARDS ThE mONGOL-iAN CAMP/ BUT WAS STOPPED QU-iTE OFTEN -iN ORDER TO PREACH TO ThE PEOPLE. tHE pAND-iTA WAS FEARFUL ThAT pR-iNCE gODAN WOULD BECOME ANGRY AT ThE T-iME -iT WAS TAK-iNG H-iM TO ARR-iVE/ SO HE SENT H-iS TWO NEPHEWS/ pHAGPA AND dROGON/ TO GO AHEAD AND REASSURE ThE pR-iNCE ThAT HE WOULD BE COM-iNG. tHE TWO NEPHEWS HAD BECOME FAVOR-iTES OF ThE COURT BY ThE T-iME ThE sAKYA pAND-iTA ARR-iVED -iN 1247. tHE PLACE WHERE pR-iNCE gODAN AND ThE sAKYA pAND-iTA F-iNALLY MET WAS lAN-cHOU/ CAP-iTAL OF kANSU PROV-iNCE. tHE pAND-iTA/ ALSO ONE OF ThE GREATEST LOG-iC-iANS OF t-iBET/ SPENT YEARS TEACH-iNG pR-iNCE gODAN AND ThE mONGOL-iAN PEOPLE ThE WAYS OF bUDDH-iSM. hE TAUGHT ThEM WHAT TO DO/ HOW TO Th-iNK/ AND HOW TO BE A bUDDH-iST. tHE sAKYA pAND-iTA D-iED AT ThE AGE OF 76 -iN 1251/ AT lAN-CHOU. bEGORE H-iS DEATh/ HE HAD PASSED ON H-iS W-iSDOM TO H-iS NEPHEW pHAGPA. hE TAUGHT pHAGPA EVERYTh-iNG HE KNEW AND ALSO GAVE ThE NEPHEW H-iS BEGG-iNG BOWL/ ThE SYMBOL OF H-iS AUThOR-iTY. pR-iNCE gODAN D-iED ShORTLY AFTER ThE sAKYA pAND-iTA/ -iN 1252. hE WAS SUCCEEDED BY gENGH-iS kHAN'S GRANDSON pR-iNCE kUBLA-i. kUBLA-i WROTE A LETTER TO pHAGPA -iN 1254 STAT-iNGH aS A TRUE BEL-iEVER -iN ThE GREAT lORD bUDDHA/ ThE ALL-MERC-iFUL AND -iNV-iNC-iBLE RULER OF ThE WORLD/ WHOSE PRESENCE/ L-iKE ThE SUN/ L-iGHTS UP EVERY DARK PLACE/ i HAVE ALWAYS ShOWN SPEC-iAL FAVOR TO ThE MONKS AND MONASTER-iES OF YOUR COUNTRY. dO NOT Th-iNK ThE mONGOLS -iNCAPABLE OF LEARN-iNG YOUR REL-iG-iON. wE LEARN -iT GRADUALLY.(2) pHAGPA ACCEPTED ThE pR-iNCE'S -iNV-iTAT-iON TO COME AND -iNSTRUCT ThE LEADER AND H-iS PEOPLE. pHAGPA TAUGHT kUBLA-i FOR A NUMBER OF YEARS/ BECOM-iNG A VERY CLOSE COMPAN-iON TO ThE pR-iNCE/ WHO LATER BECAME kUBLA-i kHAN. pHAGPA ThEN WENT BACK -iNTO t-iBET FOR ThREE YEARS/ V-iS-iT-iNG ThE TEMPLES AND TALK-iNG TO ThE PEOPLE/ wHEN HE CAME BACK pHAGPA "PRESENTED TO kUBLA-i A SCR-iPT HE HAD DEV-iSED FOR ThE mONGOL-iAN LANGUAGE. tH-iS SCR-iPT WAS BASED UPON t-iBETAN WR-iT-iNG."(3) tHE SCR-iPT WAS NOT USED MUCH/ ESPEC-iALLY AFTER ThE DEATh OF kUBLA-i/ BECAUSE OF -iTS SQUARE FORM--WH-iCH MADE -iT D-iFF-iCULT TO USE. pHAGPA HAD MANY HONORS BESTOWED UPON H-iM BY ThE pR-iNCE AND kHAN/ kUBLA-i. tHE TEACHER PASSED ON -iN 1280. tHE eASTERN mONGOLS aS T-iME WENT ON/ bUDDH-iSM AMONG ThE mONGOLS AFTER ThE DEATh OF kUBLA-i kHAN WAS NOT STRONG--UNT-iL ThE S-iXTEENTh CENTURY. iN 1577 sONAM gYATSO/ WHO WAS FOUND TO BE ThE RE-iNCARNAT-iON OF pHAGPA/ WAS -iNV-iTED TO V-iS-iT mONGOL-iA. tHE -iNV-iTAT-iON WAS SENT BY aLTAN kHAN/ A RE-iNCARNAT-iON OF kUBLA-i kHAN. sONAM gYATSO ARR-iVED AT ThE mONGOL-iAN CAP-iTAL OF kOKO kHOTAN -iN 1578/ AND -iT WAS AT Th-iS T-iME ThAT ThE -iNAUGURAT-iON OF ThE mONGOL-iAN bUDDH-iST cHURCH OFF-iC-iALLY TOOK PLACE. tHEN sONAM gYATSO BEGAN TO TEACH ThE kHAN AND H-iS PEOPLE REL-iG-iON/ PREACH-iNG ON ONE OCCAS-iON OUT OF DOORS TO ThE WHOLE POPULAT-iON. oNCE aLTAN kHAN BECAME A bUDDH-iST/ HE MADE Th-iS DECLARAT-iONaH wE/ mONGOLS/ ARE POWERFUL BECAUSE OUR ANCESTRAL RACE OR-iG-iNALLY DESCENDED FROM ThE SKY/ AND [gENGH-iS kHAN] EXTENDED -iTS EMP-iRE EVEN TO cH-iNA AND t-iBET. tHE bUDDH-iST REL-iG-iON F-iRST CAME TO OUR COUNTRY -iN EARL-iER T-iMES/ WHEN WE GAVE OUR PATRONAGE TO sAKYA pAND-iTA. lATER/ WE HAD AN eMPEROR NAMED @tEMUR/ DUR-iNG WHOSE RE-iGN OUR PEOPLE HAD NO REL-iG-iON AND OUR COUNTRY DEGENERATED; SO ThET -iT SEEMED AS ThOUGH AN OCEAN OF BLOOD HAD FLOODED ThE LAND. yOUR V-iS-iT TO US HAS NOW HELPED ThE bUDDH-iST REL-iG-iON TO REV-iVE. oUR RELAT-iONSh-iP OF PATRON AND LAMA CAN BE L-iKENED TO ThAT OF ThE SUN AND MOON. tHE OCEAN OF BLOOD HAS BECOME AN OCEAN OF M-iLK. tHE t-iBETANS/ cH-iNESE/ AND mONGOLS NOW L-iV-iNG -iN Th-iS COUNTRY ShOULD PRACT-iSE ThE tEN pR-i-iNC-iPLES OF ThE lORD bUDDHA...(4) bEFORE RETURN-iNG TO t-iBET/ sONAM gYATSO RECE-iVED MANY PRESENTS/ AND WAS ALSO G-iVEN ThE T-iTLE @dALA-i lAMA. "'dALA-i' -iS ThE mONGOL-iAN FOR 'OCEAN' AND CONNOTES ThAT ThE lAMA'S LEARN-iNG WAS AS DEEP AND AS BROAD AS ThE OCEAN."(5) sONAM gYATSO WAS ThE F-iRST G-iVEN ThE T-iTLE "dALA-i lAMA/" BUT HE -iS COUNTED AS ThE Th-iRD BECAUSE/ AFTER ThE T-iTLE WAS G-iVEN TO H-iM/ TWO OF H-iS PREV-iOUS L-iVES ALSO RECE-iVED -iT--ThUS MAK-iNG H-iM ThE Th-iRD dALA-i lAMA. tH-iS ALL OCCURRED -iN 1578/ WH-iCH WAS ABOUT ThE SAME T-iME ThAT ThE "L-iV-iNG bUDDHA/" dONGKUR mANJUShR-i kHUTUKHTU/ WAS ESTABL-iShED. iN 1602/ A L-iNE OF RE-iNCARNAT-iONS CALLED "mA-iTREYA kHUTUKHTU" BEGAN. sUCH L-iNES HAVE CONT-iNUED UP TO MODERN T-iMESH(6) ThE gEGEN d-iLOWA kHUTUKHTU L-iVED FOR A T-iME HERE -iN fREEWOOD aCRES/ nEW jERSEY. tHE wESTERN mONGOLS tHE wESTERN mONGOLS CALLED ThEMSELVES "o-iRAT/" OR "o-iRAD/" WH-iCH ACCORD-iNG TO gROUSSET MEANS "cONFEDERATES." tHE o-iRAT OR kALMUK DOMA-iN CL-iMAXED -iN POWER DUR-iNG 1439-1455. iT "STRETCHED FROM lAKE bALKHASh TO lAKE bA-iKAL/ AND FROM bA-iKAL TO...ThE gREAT wALL."(7) k-iNG eSEN OF ThE o-iRATS HAD DEFEATED ThE TR-iBES D-iRECTLY DESCENDED FROM gENGH-iS kHAN/ AND -iN 1449 BEAT ThE cH-iNESE ARMY AND HELD ThE cH-iNESE EMPEROR PR-iSONER. aT ThE BEG-iNN-iNG OF ThE SEVENTEENTh CENTURY/ ThE kHALKA OF aLTYN-kHAN HAD BEGUN TO PLACE UPON ThE o-iRAT TR-iBES CERTA-iN PRESSURES. iN 1616/ kHU uRLUK AND H-iS TR-iBES LEFT dZUNGAR-iA AND WENT WEST. tHEY F-iNALLY SETTLED AROUND aSTRAKHAN/ NEAR ThE MOUTh OF ThE wOLGA R-iVER/ AFTER DEFEAT-iNG ThE TR-iBES NORTh OF ThE cASP-iAN sEA (SEE ThE ACCOMPANY-iNG MAP). nOW gUSh-i kHAN/ KNOWN TO ThE cH-iNESE AS "ThE kHAN OF ThE t-iBETANS/" MOVED W-iTh A GROUP OF o-iRAT TR-iBES TO nORTh t-iBET/ -iN 1636. tHERE/ -iN ThE lAKE kOKONOR AREA/ HE DEVELOPED H-iMSELF A K-iNGDOM/ SPREAD-iNG AT ONE T-iME EVEVN TO eAST t-iBET. aROUND 1640/ HE MADE A NUMBER OF TR-iPS -iNTO ThE M-iDDLE OF t-iBET TO ASS-iST ThE dALA-i lAMA/ AND WAS HELPED BY ThE OThER o-iRAT PR-iNCES---iNCLUD-iNG kHU uRLUK/ WHO BR-iEFLY RETURNED FROM ThE cASP-iAN sEA AREA. iT WAS ABOUT Th-iS T-iME ThAT ThE zAYA pAND-iTA/ ALSO KNOWN AS nAMKHAY gYAMTSO/ RETURNED TO ThE o-iRATS TO TEACH ThEM bUDDH-iSM. zAYA pAND-iTA HAD G-iVEN UP H-iS POS-iT-iON -iN kHOShOT NOB-iL-iTY AT AGE SEVENTEEN AND BECAME A MONK/ TRAVELL-iNG TO t-iBET FOR STUDY. wHEN HE CAME BACK HE PERFECTED/ AT ThE AGE OF 49/ ONE OF ThE OR-iG-iNAL mONGOL-iAN WR-iT-iNG SYSTEMS. hE TRANSLATED SOME 200 bUDDH-iST WORKS -iNTO mONGOL-iAN/ AND PASSED AWAY -iN1662. hOW ThE kALMUKS l-iVED mEAN-iNG OF ThE nAME "kALMUK" wHAT DOES ThE NAME "kALMUK" MEAN? nO ONE -iS ABSOLUTELY SURE/ AND ThE ETYMOLOG-iES AND DEF-iN-iT-iONS FOR ThE WORD VARY GREATLY. gROUSSET STATES ThAT ThE tURKS GAVE ThE o-iRATS ThE NAME "kALMUKS."(8) bORMANSh-iNOV OFFERS ThE FOLLOW-iNGH n.n. pOPPE/ -iN H-iS H-iThERTO UNPUBL-iShED PAPER/ -iS -iNCL-iNED TO ACCEPT gEGEN d-iLOWA kHUTUKHTU'S EXPLANAT-iON COMMUN-iCATED TO H-iM ORALLY ThAT ThE NAME "kALMYK"...GOES BACK TO ThE mONGOL-iAN VERB "XAL-iX"--"TO OVERFLOW/ TO RUN OVER/ TO SPREAD (ALL OVER ThE TERR-iTORY)." tH-iS ETYMOLOGY SEEMS TO BE CONV-iNC-iNG BECAUSE -iT MAY REFER TO ThE S-iGN-iF-iCANT EXPANS-iON OF ThE o-iRAT KHANATE -iN ThE F-iFTEENTh AND ThE FOLLOW-iNG CENTUR-iES.(9) tHERE ARE MANY MORE DEF-iN-iT-iONS AND ETYMOLOG-iES G-iVEN FOR ThE NAME; i W-iLL NOT GO -iNTO ThEM/ BUT ThEY DEAL W-iTh ThE H-iSTORY AND CUSTOMS OF ThE kALMUK TR-iBES. d-iFFERENT tR-iBES OF kALMUKS dUR-iNG gENGH-iS kHAN'S T-iME/ A F-iERCE TR-iBE OF FOREST mONGOLS/ ThE o-iRATS/ WAS SETTLED ON ThE WESTERN ShORE OF lAKE bA-iKAL/ -iN ThE cENTRAL aS-iAN STEPPES. tH-iS GROUP/ FORERUNNER OF ThE MODERN kALMUKS/ WAS MADE UP OF FOUR D-iST-iNCT SUBTR-iBESH ThE cHOROS/ ThE @dORBOD/ ThE kHOShOT/ AND ThE tORGHUT. tHESE D-iST-iNCT-iONS CONT-iNUE UP -iNTO RECENT T-iMES. tRAD-iT-iONAL kALMUK l-iFE aT ThE BEG-iNN-iNG OF ThE SEVENTEENTh CENTURY/ -iN ABOUT 1620/ REL-iG-iOUS TRAD-iT-iONS BEGAN TO SET -iN AMONG ThE kALMUKS. iT STARTED WHEN ThE kHOShOT CH-iEF bO-iBEGHUS bA'ATUR CONVERTED TO bUDDH-iSM. iT WAS BECAUSE OF H-iM ThAT ThREE OThER kALMUK PR-iNCES--kHARA kHULA OF ThE cHOROS/ dALA-i tA-iJ-i OF ThE @dORBOT/ AND kHU uRLUK OF ThE tORGHUT/ EACH SENT A SON TO t-iBET TO STUDY bUDDH-iSM ACCORD-iNG TO ThE TRAD-iT-iON ACCORD-iNG TO jE tSONGKHAPA. cONNECT-iONS BETWEEN ThE kALMUKS AND t-iBETANS ThEN CONT-iNUED. tHE kHOShOT KHANS CONT-iNUED TO HELP t-iBETAN SCHOLARS AND MONASTER-iESFOR A HUNDRED YEARS. tHE WETERN kALMUKS ALSO KEPT CONTACT/ FOR ThEY OFTEN SENT YOUNG MEN FROM ThE-iR cASP-iAN sEA AREA TO t-iBET FOR H-iGHER REL-iG-iOUS STUD-iES. tHROUGHOUT Th-iS T-iME PER-iOD MONAST-iC UN-iVERS-iT-iES WERE ESTABL-iShED -iN kALMUK TERR-iTORY/ SUCH AS ThE ONE FOUNDED -iN 1640 BY ThE kHOShOT CH-iEF/ aBLA-i-tA-iJ-i/ JUST NORTh OF lAKE bALKASh. rEL-iG-iOUS PRACT-iCE -iN kALMUK LAND HAD BECOME VERY -iMPORTANT. tHE kALMUK kHAN dONDUK dASh-i -iN 1757 MADE NEW LAWS/ SEVERAL OF WH-iCH S-iGN-iF-iEDThE -iMPORTANT ROLE REL-iG-iON HAD. tHE FOLLOW-iNG ARE EXAMPLESH lAW @##3H hONOR AND ESTEEM FOR ThE H-iGHLY EDUCATED CLERGYMEN. @##4H oBL-iGATORY -iNSTRUCT-iON OF kALMYCK BOYS UNT-iL ThE AGE OF 15 -iN kALMYCK (mONGOL) GRAMMAR (READ-iNG AND WR-iT-iNG). oThERW-iSE A F-iNE WAS -iMPOSED AND ThE BOYS WERE G-iVEN TO bAKShAS (TEACHERS) FOR -iNSTRUCT-iON.(10) yET LONG BEFORE ThEY HAD BEGUN ThE-iR REL-iG-iOUS PRACT-iCE/ BEFORE ThE START OF ThE REL-iG-iOUS TRAD-iT-iONS/ ThE kALMUKS HAD POSSESSED D-iST-iNCT-iVE CUSTOMS. aCTUAL mOVE OF dEBATE AND lOG-iC tRAD-iT-iON TO aMER-iCA pOL-iT-iCAL pROBLEMS OF ThE kALMUKS tHE kALMUKS HAD ALWAYS BEEN A NOMAD-iC PEOPLE. eVEN -iN ThE gENGH-iS-kHAN-iTE PER-iOD/ ThE o-iRATS L-iVED -iN HORSE-PULLED WAGONS W-iTh TENTS TO MAKE MOV-iNG EASY. OR-iG-iNAL SCR-iPTURE _